The Israelites in captivity can be divided into two main groups. The majority were scattered among the nations from the times of the kingdoms of Babylon, Persia, Media, Greece, and the Roman Empire until the present day. They dwelt first in the neighboring nations and gradually moved to other parts of the world. They established themselves in their respective countries of residence, followed the local customs, and over time actually became native inhabitants of those lands. There was also the minority, the remnant, who after being taken captive remembered their old country. They were reluctant to give up their ancestry and way of life; even the more, they were unwilling to forsake the God whom they served and worshipped. Seventy years after the captivity, in the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, the Israelites obtained permission to return to their homeland to rebuild the temple and to reinstate the offering of sacrifices. These events are recorded in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.
After they returned to their own country, they were under the rule of the Persian Empire for another two centuries. For the most part, the various kings of Persia adopted a lenient policy concerning the people of Israel, granting them broad rights and allowing them to worship and serve God.
Judea was situated between the two strong nations of that day, Persia and Egypt, and whenever war would erupt between those two countries, it inevitably became the battle ground. For example, during the years of Artaxerxes II (404-358 B.C.), Evagoras, king of Salamis, in Cyprus, aided by Athens and Egypt, broke his relationship with Persia. Soon after that, he besieged Tyre in order to war against Persia. To support him, Egypt sent its armies northward through Judea, imposing taxation and military draft upon the remnant along the way and inflicting a loss of life and property beyond measure.
After Persia, the Grecian Empire established by Alexander the Great of Macedonia prevailed. Following his conquest of Tyre and Gaza the young Alexander stormed toward Judea with rage because the Israelites had failed to furnish him with military supplies and conciliatory tributes. When he drew near to the holy city, the high priest Jaddua led a company of priests and Levites to welcome him. He entered the city happily and even read the book of Daniel in the temple, only to discover that two hundred years earlier the prophets had already prophesied concerning him (Dan. 8:5-8). The young emperor was both astonished and moved and immediately ordered the retreat of his troops. After that, he dealt favorably with the holy people, granting them protection in the great Grecian Empire, waiving a portion of their taxes, and allowing them freedom of worship.
After the death of Alexander there were several years of civil war, after which his empire was subdivided into four parts: the kingdoms of Ptolemy (Egypt), of Cassander (Macedonia), of Lysimachus (Asia Minor), and of Seleucus (Syria). Located between Syria and Egypt, the land of Judea once again became a point of contention between the two powers. Although Judea had belonged to Syria, Ptolemy I seized it when he defeated Syria (320 B.C.). Under the rule of Ptolemy and his successors, the Jews in both Egypt and Judea gained considerable religious freedom and protection. The high priest in Jerusalem was not only the religious leader but also the political leader, and the priests and Levites were exempt from property taxes.
In 198 B.C., Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, defeated Egypt and recaptured Judea as his own domain. He then negotiated with Egypt under the terms that Ptolemy V, king of Egypt, would marry his daughter Cleopatra and the son she was to bear would become the heir to the throne of Egypt. He further pledged the land of Palestine as a dowry, promising an equal share in the tax revenues from the land for the two countries. Antiochus the Great, however, was not wholly faithful to his word. Instead of leaving Judea, the Syrian troops stayed there with the Egyptian troops. The Jews, who had managed to survive under foreign domination, now had a much more difficult time under the two co-rulers. There were factions and striving, with some suggesting closer ties with Egypt, and others, with Syria. During the winter between 190 B.C. and 189 B.C., the decisive encounter known as the Battle of Magnesia took place between Antiochus the Great and the Roman army. Magnesia was situated on the southern bank of the river Hermus, north of Ephesus and west of Sardis. Antiochus the Great, with 70,000 troops under him, was defeated by his opponent who had only 30,000. He was forced to concede territory as payment to Rome, and his son Antiochus (Epiphanes) was given as a hostage to the Romans. In paying the war indemnity, he drained the nation’s treasury and brought about the decline of his country. Eventually he was killed in a revolt in 187 B.C. This fulfilled the word in Daniel 11:15-19. Antiochus’ son Seleucus Philopator succeeded him for twelve years and was murdered by his own subordinate.